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Creating A Byzantine Icon
A Hands-On Approach to Teaching about Byzantine Art and Culture for the Middle- or High School Classroom
The icon is one of the quintessential art forms in the Eastern Orthodox world from early Byzantine through modern times. The creation of an icon, the hands-on project described here, offers an opportunity to teach about Byzantine art and architecture in the secondary-school classroom. It also can be used to make comparisons to western and nonwestern cultures, and to different religions and their artistic expressions. For while western medieval history and art seem to be taught as a sprint from Constantine through the Crusades to Gothic cathedrals, the presentation of Byzantium in the secondary school curriculum is even more cursory, often ending in the sixth century with Justinian, his law code and Hagia Sophia.(1) This project can be offered to give a glimpse of the further riches of Byzantine art and culture. It can further serve to introduce students to the pre-modern Mediterranean world in the humanities classroom and to the history of religion (all too rare in our secular schools), as well as to underscore the importance of art study in historical and cultural studies worldwide.
I developed this project in May of 2002, in a ninth-grade World History class taught by Mrs. Orelia Dann at Greenhills School, an independent secondary school in Ann Arbor, MI.(2) The class consisted of about 18 students. A freshman survey course, it began with an anthropological inquiry geared to finds (students were given photographs of fish hooks, cooking stones, etc. to decipher), and continued on to chronologically treat various cultures up through the Renaissance. To continue her infusion of art history in this class, Mrs. Dann had assigned a simple version of this project for several years, in which students were told to create an icon of their favorite teacher or public figure. In discussion with her, I proposed the idea of expanding the project as a learning opportunity for students to gain a wider understanding and appreciation of Byzantium. I am glad to present this project to the TEAMS community as a template for dissemination to teachers interested in furthering their curricular offerings in medieval art, history and culture. (3) I have included my outline, with elucidation of the main points.
I. INTRODUCTION TO ORTHODOXY AND THE ICON
A. Background: Discussion of Eastern Orthodox Christianity.
We briefly covered the history of the Orthodox church and its separation from western (Catholic) Christianity. I outlined some similarities (belief in the triune god, Christ as savior, etc.) and differences (calendar, elements of worship, national churches). We then began to consider the role of art.
B. What is an Icon?
1. Definition and Importance of Icons
Icons (from the Greek eikon, “image”) are not just illustrations in church, although they do depict figures and scenes from Christian history and doctrine. What is essential is the belief that an icon has "indwelling spirit," a spiritual connection to its prototype depicted. (4) Icons are usually images which are placed and presented in such a way as to be available for petitions and prayer. I often invoke the metaphor of a "hotline telephone," a direct linkage which is believed to speed prayer to the saint pictured, in explaining the efficacy of the iconic image.
2. History of the Icon
Icons developed out of late Roman images of various deities, and the study of the source of the iconic image is currently engaging a number of scholars. (5) Icons become an important feature of Orthodox worship after the sixth century. While many icons from this period do not survive, enough have been preserved at the monastery at Mt. Sinai to demonstrate their early proliferation. At this time, too, the belief in their inherent power developed, further adding to their appeal. This belief in the special power of icons became so powerful in the 8th century that icons were outlawed for during the period known as Iconoclasm, from 726 to 843. Some church officials, especially in powerful monasteries, considered worship of icons tantamount to idolatry. When images again became legal, a flowering of Byzantine art ensued. It is this period which saw the full development of the icon. Icon painting continued past the conquest of Constantinople by the Ottomans, and persists to this day on Mt. Athos and in Russia and other countries where the Orthodox church flourishes.
3. Comparisons: Attitudes toward Images in Other Religions
This is a point at which other religious traditions can be brought in as comparisons. Faiths such as Tibetan Buddhism which feature images may be discussed, along with religions which eschew images, such as Judaism and Islam.
C. Icons in the Byzantine Church
1. The Architectural Setting for Icons
Orthodox churches are not long like western churches, but are compact, organized usually around a central dome, a plan known as the "cross-in-square." The dome is the highest point; supporting vaults are lower and usually form a cross-shape of vaulted spaces to the north, south, east and west. The eastern end terminates with the quarter-dome of the apse, above the altar. Corner spaces may be domed or vaulted, as can the entry space known as the narthex. This architectural framework is usually covered with special decoration.
2. The Decorative Program
The highest spaces contain Christ often accompanied by angels or prophets. The vaults contain stories of Christ's life and miracles. The apse--transitional between high and lower spaces--houses the Virgin Mary as the meeting point between heaven and earth (in Orthodox theology she is the mother of both the human and divine natures of Christ). The lower zones contain images of saints; the worshipers are the dwellers in the lowest zone. Often female saints are depicted in the western part of the church, where women stood to worship. These lower images themselves function as icons, available as the focus for worshipers who move around the church to pray in front of them..
3. Media Used for Icons in the Church
The placement of icons depends on the media (materials) used for their creation. Icons which are part of wall decoration may be mosaics (pictures made of small squares of stone and colored glass) or frescoes (images in tempera, a water-based paint using egg to bind the pigments, painted on wet plaster). Portable icons are usually tempera painted on wooden panels, although the earliest icons seem to have been done in encaustic, pigments dissolved in hot wax. These panels would be displayed on the templon, the dividing screen between the apse, where the priests officiate, and the main worship space, where the laity stand. The icon depicting the feast or saint of the day is usually displayed on a special stand, and other icons may be hung on the walls, near doors, etc. This portion of the introduction ought to be illustrated with historic examples. I showed cross-in-square plans from Daphni and Hosios Loukas, eleventh century churches in Greece, along with their mosaic decoration. The church of St. Panteleimon at Nerezi (1164) served as a five-domed cross-in-square church decorated with frescoes. Templon icons can be shown from a variety of churches.(6)
4. Church Rituals Relating to Icons
We talk next about how icons function in the church. Readings are done in front of them, so they form the backdrop to pronouncements of gospel passages, the life of the saint being celebrated that day, and the psalms, all of which form part of the liturgy or worship service. The icons are also interacted with physically through rituals such as the lighting of candles in front of them, the censing of them by priests, and the kissing, dressing, anointing and washing which form part of worshipers' and church officials' worship activities. Worshipers circulate throughout the church to contact the various icons. In addition to these activities, the icons may be hung with metal votive plaques which depict the object prayed for (a new car, a leg for which a cure is sought). Some are covered with silver decorative revetment as an offering, either in petition or in thanks. In class, images of liturgy and individual worship can be shown, (7) and images of revetted icons (icons covered in a decorative silver sheathing) can be displayed, as well.
5. Comparisons: Other Religions Utilizing Similar Elements in Worship
At this point, rituals in other religions may be presented for comparison. Some I have offered are:
a. Movement
Sufi "dances," the movement of Quakers and Shakers during worship, the line dances of Hasidim, and circumambulation in Buddhism and Hindu practices are all examples for using movement to induce spiritual states or as part of worship.
b. Lights
Butter lamps in Tibetan Buddhism used as offerings; lighting candles in Jewish tradition to open celebrations on holidays such as the sabbath; votive candles in Catholic churches as elements of petition and prayer; and lights as part Hindu divali and western winter solstice festivities like Christmas, Chanukah, and Kwanzaa may all form interesting topics for discussions of similarities and differences.
II. THE ICON ITSELF
A. The Iconography of Icons
1. Recognizability of Subject
Icon artists work hard to make individuals recognizable. Many saints have standardized features, such as St. Peter, who is always depicted with a short white beard and curly white hair. All are identified by inscriptions.
2. Symbolism
Symbols are often included to further identify figures. Certain colors are associated with certain individuals, such as blue for Mary's robe. Particular numbers, like twelve for the apostles, renders a group easily identifiable. And objects associated with saints, called "attributes" help to make meaning clear; Saint Catherine's wheel, a symbol of her martyrdom, allows easy recognition. (8)
3. Comparison: Contemporary Symbolism
Here, one can introduce a discussion of symbolism in medieval and modern culture. Examples from popular culture can be cited; wearing black or a colored bandanna might tell you something about the wearer, for instance. The same is true for modern-day use of attributes, something that symbolizes someone, highlighting important parts of his/her history, activities, etc., which allows you to recognize that person's image. Citing an image like Van Halen's guitar might make this concept salient. Other modern examples could include emblems, logos (like the computer apple), family crests. Students might be asked to think about what their attributes might be.
B. The Style of Icons--How do Icons Look?
1. Simple, Clear and Static
Frequently icons depict single figures, presented in a non-narrative mode. Icon images are easily readable. The figures are often surrounded by open space with no overlapping, so that you can see all of a figure. They are usually presented frontally, with a minimum of background.
2. Identifiable
Inscriptions naming the figure accompany each image so that there is no confusion. Inscriptions are placed beside the head and are clearly legible.
3. Abstract
Icons are usually presented in an abstract style--certain elements are pulled out and made salient. The faces and bodies are rather flat and clearly separated by outlines. If there is an attribute, or a particular facial feature or hairstyle, it will be emphasized and made prominent.
4. Intense
Often deep, gem-like colors are used. Most frequently, the figures or scenes are set against a gold background, which serves to take the image out of any recognizable space and time, and at the same time intensifies the colors. The golden glow is one of the preeminent impressions of the icon.
III. PROJECT: YOUR BYZANTINE ICON
The hands-on part of the project.
1. Selection
Students are asked to choose their subjects. The choice should be someone important to the student: a teacher in the school, an important political figure, a celebrity, a coach, a friend or family member. (9)
2. Research
Students then learn about their subjects. Each one should ask: what do you want to emphasize about this individual? Writing an appropriate inscription and selecting an attribute for inclusion come about as part of the answer to this exploration.
3. Preparation
I had students prepare by reading xeroxed handouts with selections from the 'Painter's Manual' by Dionysius of Fourna on iconography, materials and techniques.
4. Presentation of Preliminary Ideas
If desired, students can submit preliminary sketches, which might be critiqued in a group, and compared to historic icons for ideas about subject presentation and style.
5. Fabrication of the Icon
Options might include any medium available through the art teachers at the school.
a. Interdisciplinary Option
If it is feasible, this could become an interdisciplinary project in conjunction with the art faculty, allowing the teaching of some basic art concepts such as composition, color theory, and kinds of rendering, comparing shading through value (dark/light variation) and by use of color (hot/cold colors)--a Byzantine development.
b. Exploration of Media
This can be as simple or elaborate as desired. If the project is done in an art class, or in conjunction with the art department, students could learn to make tempera paint and handle gold leaf. The process of fresco could be tried. Students could work in mosaic, either with purchased squares, fabricated ones out of clay, or even Color Aid paper. Our project in a history class used basic materials: large sheets of paper, crayons, markers and colored pencils.
6. Presentation of Projects
Students should be able to present these projects for the school population to see and enjoy. Ours were displayed on temporary walls during a reception, and everyone learned a lot about the people presented through these images. Most students depicted their subjects in frontal, bust portraits; individual elements such as hairdos or styles of dress were highlighted. Creativity was visible everywhere: a Spanish teacher had her inscription in Spanish, the band teacher was identified by musical notes, the math teacher by an equation. Coaches held tennis rackets, English teachers books. The principal even had a halo!
This project fulfilled its goal as a way of furthering students' knowledge about a culture often seen as very foreign to most students' experiences. It covered most of the cognitive areas of Bloom's taxonomy of educational objectives (10), allowing students to apply and process this information in a personal, relevant way. Finally, it encouraged the production art in a non-art classroom, creating a project which was creative and enjoyable to the students and public alike.
Ellen C. Schwartz
Ellen C. Schwartz is Professor of Art History in the Art Department at
Eastern Michigan University. She has published articles on wall
paintings and icons of the Byzantine world. Her current research
focuses on Byzantine icons in copper and bronze.
Notes
1. In the course in which I presented this project, the textbook assigned at that time covered political events in Byzantium up to the eleventh century in the most cursory fashion. Only four illustrations were included: Theodora's portrait in Ravenna, a print of Constantinople, Hagia Sophia and a later revetted Byzantine icon. See Helen and Robert T. Howe, Ancient and Medieval Worlds (White Plains, NY: Longman Inc., 1987), 290-303.
2. My thanks to Mrs. Orelia Dann, who gave me the original idea for this project, and offered me the opportunity to present it to her class on May 5, 2002. My association with Greenhills was as a parent; my youngest son had been enrolled there since 1999, and was a participant in this class.
3. As a member of a task force set up by the Byzantine Studies Conference, I was particularly aware of lacunae in secondary school curricula with regard to this part of history training. In recent years, I have routinely asked my freshman art history survey classes how many of them have learned anything about Byzantium; I usually count two or three students out of a class of a hundred.
4. This doctrine was elucidated at the end of the iconoclastic controversy; a concise discussion of this may be found in: Annemarie Weyl Carr, “Icons,” Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991), II, 977-978, with literature cited.
6. Images of these churches are easily found on ARTstor http://www.artstor.org, or in any of the introductory survey textbooks such as Fred S. Kleiner and Christin J. Mamiya, Gardner's Art through the Ages, 12th ed. (Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/Thomson Leaning, 2005). Vol. I . More images and information is available in any of the medieval art textbooks such as Henry Luttikhuizen and Dorothy Verkerk, Snyder's Medieval Art, 2nd ed. (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2005), and in Byzantine art texts like Cormack, Robin. Byzantine Art (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000).
7. Some arresting ones may be found in the Getty catalogue: Robert S. Nelson and Kristen M. Collins, eds., Holy Image, Hallowed Ground--Icons from Sinai (Los Angeles: The J. Paul Getty Museum, 2006).
8. These are outlined in guides available to artists; one such is Paul Hetherington, transl., The 'Painter's Manual' of Dionysius of Fourna (Redondo Beach, CA: Oakwood Publications, [1974] 1981).
9. All members of our class chose to make icons of teachers and other personnel at the school, and as Mrs. Dann remarked, "It's amazing what they know about us," visible in the attributes chosen for inclusion!
The Once and Future Classroom , Volume V, Issue 2, Fall 2007
http://www.teamsmedieval.org/ofc/SP07/icon.htm
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